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Figure 5-3, the sequence of the 10 samples can be represented, as shown in Figure 5-4. This digital pulsed signal has a 1 volt as a binary one and a 0 volt value as a binary zero. This signal is often referred to as unipolar (either 0 or 1 V) and so has a varying d.c. value, depending on the amount of binary ones (positive pulses). This can become a problem when transmitting digital information through a communication system. Another technique that reduces the d.c. level is to use a 1 V for a binary one and a 1 V for a binary zero. This method tends to reduce the d.c. level value and is often referred to as bipolar. These pulse trains can also split the signal time of a bit and return to a zero value before changing to the negative value representing a binary zero. This type of signal is referred to as RZ (return to zero). Several pulsed signals representing the same binary number is shown in Figure 5-5. Circuits using such pulsed signal waveforms maintaining bit synchronization are most important. Clearly, the form shown as bipolar return to zero (BPRZ) gives more signal transitions, thus aiding bit (clock) synchronization. These forms of pulsed signals are known as line code formats. 5.113 Sequences of digital pulses correspond to binary digits, which in turn represent, for instance, alphanumeric characters that require another coding and decoding procedure. Certain applications require a number of bits to form what is termed a computer word or a data byte. A 7-bit character sequence is used to form the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) code commonly used in computer-toprinter operations. This code is shown in Figure 5-6. Table 5-1 lists the abbreviations and their de nitions. Books have been written on various codes that contain many features, yet such features are not a concern to communications people as long as the type of line code is compatible with the transmission medium. Certain types of codes contain error detection and correction features, but the ASCII code is widely used in personal computer (PC) input /output operations and has undergone several revisions since it was rst adopted in 1963. Other alphanumeric codes are the old TTY (Teletype) code and the one developed by IBM called Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC), which is an 8-bit code with many characters. Errorchecking is performed on the ASCII code using another bit, making a character 7 bits plus 1 parity bit for a total of 8. Bits 0 through 6 are the character s 7 bits and bit 7 is the parity bit. The EBCDIC code uses no parity bit.

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ReedSoloman encoder 187, 207

n o t e The case of all four of the GP2Dxx sensors looks like normal black plastic, but it is actually a good electric shield when grounded. It is very important that you connect this shield to ground. This is mandatory for these sensors to work reliably!

SONET has its roots in voice telephony. In the 1980s, many of the Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) began deploying fiber-optic transport systems, mainly to transport plesiochronous DS-1 signals (1.544Mbps); these DS1s typically carried 64kbps voice channels, either from a customer location to a digital switch or between digital switches. Because these fiber-optic transport systems were based mainly on vendor-proprietary technology, the RBOCs commissioned Bellcore (now Telcordia) to develop a uniform technology for fiber-optic transport. Bellcore dubbed this technology Synchronous Optical Network (SONET), and introduced it into ANSI committee T1X1 in 1985. ANSI ratified the SONET standard in 1988 [1]. In 1989, CCITT (now ITU-T) standardized the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) [2], which is optimized to carry E1 signals (2.048Mbps), but is in most other ways identical to SONET. Synchronous Transport Signal-1 (STS-1) is the fundamental signal structure for SONET. The bytes of the STS-1 may be represented by a 90-column 9-row structure; the first three columns (27 bytes) contain the transport overhead, whereas the remaining 87 columns (783 bytes) carry the STS payload. This structure is transmitted every 125 s, resulting in a bit rate of 51.840Mbps. The Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE) is an 87 9-byte structure that occupies the STS payload. The SPE has its own overhead, the Path OverHead (POH). An STS-1 SPE carries a single DS3 (44.736Mbps) or up to 28 DS1s. Generally, the SPE will not align with STS-1 boundaries. A mechanism called a pointer (a byte in the STS-1 transport overhead) indicates where the SPE begins inside the STS payload. The pointer mechanism provides a simple, elegant way for SONET to map plesiochronous DS3 or DS1 signals into a synchronous SONET payload.1 When small variations between the clock rates of the DS3 signal and the SONET network build up over time, the SONET network simply shifts the location of the SPE (and the DS3 it carries) inside the STS-1 payload and adjusts the pointer. Figure 11.1 illustrates the STS-1 frame and its relationship to the SPE. The STS-1 frame structure represents the basic building block for SONET signals. Fixed multiples of STS-1 signals may be byte-interleaved to form higher-rate signals such as STS-3, STS-12, and STS-48, etc. (see Table 11.1). This increases the number of STS-1 payloads that a SONET interface can support. As a way to increase the payload size (not just the number of STS-1 payloads), the payloads of N STS-1 signals (N = 3, 12, 48, 192, and 768) may be concatenated into a single STS-Nc SPE. Most routers use some form of payload concatenation (e.g., STS-48c) on their Packet over SONET (PoS) interfaces.

// Create a 4-bit type called Nybble. using System; // A 4-bit type. class Nybble { int val; // underlying storage public Nybble() { val = 0; } public Nybble(int i) { val = i; val = val & 0xF; // retain lower 4 bits } // Overload binary + for Nybble + Nybble. public static Nybble operator +(Nybble op1, Nybble op2) { Nybble result = new Nybble(); result.val = op1.val + op2.val; result.val = result.val & 0xF; // retain lower 4 bits return result; } // Overload binary + for Nybble + int. public static Nybble operator +(Nybble op1, int op2) { Nybble result = new Nybble(); result.val = op1.val + op2; result.val = result.val & 0xF; // retain lower 4 bits return result; } // Overload binary + for int + Nybble. public static Nybble operator +(int op1, Nybble op2) { Nybble result = new Nybble(); result.val = op1 + op2.val; result.val = result.val & 0xF; // retain lower 4 bits return result; } // Overload ++.

States will have flexibility if they meet the criteria listed previously. Wireless carriers have been granted a reprieve from the December dates, originally allowing a June 1999 implementation date. This has since been postponed until June 2000 and may be extended again. Shortly after the studies were completed, several states began the process of officially selecting the architecture to be used for LNP in their respective states. The Illinois task force requested LNP solutions from a wide array of companies via a Request For Proposal (RFP) developed by the carriers that offered service in the state of Illinois at that time. An official voting body, which was comprised of those carriers, was

Certain time-related words and phrases inspire action, such as now, today, before the deadline passes, right away, time is of the essence, and by the end of business today (or in an hour, or by any other speci ed deadline). This time-sensitive vocabulary creates a sense of urgency while maintaining a professional, business-like tone. While the above and similar phrases create a sense of timeliness, try to avoid the clich d generic phrase as soon as possible (or its abbreviation, ASAP). It is ineffective. Instead, integrate the effective words and phrases listed above into the content of your communications. Consider the following examples: